The Netherlands

Nederland

Country context

This essay describes the situation in the Netherlands as a whole; the specific situation in the Province of Fryslân is described in the essay on Fryslân.

The Kingdom of the Netherlands has a population of 16.6 million people. Approximately 1.9 million (or 11.4 per cent) are of non-Western origin (first or second generation immigrants). Two thirds of the immigrants have a Turkish, Moroccan, Antillean, or Surinamese background (CBS, 2011a). They can be divided into an ex-colonial group, the Antillean and Surinamese immigrants that come from Caribbean areas where Dutch is the official language, and a non-colonial group, Turkish and Moroccan immigrants that have had no previous contact with Dutch language and culture.

Dutch is the official language of the Netherlands. This was only incorporated in the law in 1995 (Nederlandse Taalunie, 2011). In the same law (the ‘Algemene Wet Bestuursrecht’) the Frisian language was given official status within the province of Fryslân.

In the Netherlands, non-Dutch nationals, and in particular non-Western immigrants are required to pass an exam on knowledge of the Dutch language and culture/history to show that they are sufficiently integrated into Dutch society. The government emphasises the citizens’ own responsibility and attaches great importance to the Dutch language. This is reflected in the outcomes of this study.

Languages in official documents and databases

The national language, foreign languages and R/M languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or language policy documents. The learning and teaching of the national language abroad for children and/or adults originating from the Netherlands is (co-)funded in more than 80 countries, in particular in the neighbouring countries Germany, Belgium and France. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been ratified by the Netherlands. The following five R/M languages are recognised in the Charter: Frisian, Limburgish, Low Saxon, Romani, and Yiddish. There is official provision in region-wide education, supported by the Charter, for Frisian only.

Official data collection mechanisms on language diversity in the Netherlands only exist for Frisian, in terms of periodically updated survey data. In these data collection mechanisms, Frisian is addressed, based on a home language question plus a language proficiency question in terms of whether (and how well) the language can be spoken/understood/read/written.

Nationwide data collection on language diversity does not take place, although regularly updated databases on language diversity could provide crucial input for policy development, as they do in other countries.

Languages in pre-primary education

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support 
FL:  all  restricted  no support 
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
NL:  all  immigrant children only  no support 
3 none none 3
Duration
≥2 years 1 year <1 year  
3 none none 3
Minimum group size requirements
 none  5-10  >10
3 none none 3
Days per week
 >1 day  0.5-1 day  <0.5 day
3 none none 3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
2 none none 2
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
2 none none 2
State funding available
full partial none
3 none none 3

Languages offered in pre-primary education

R/M Languages

Frisian in Friesland only

Foreign Languages

-

Immigrant Languages

-

Attending pre-primary education is optional but widespread.

The importance attached to the Dutch language by the Ministry of Education is illustrated by programmes that are offered for children at pre-primary school ‘to combat (Dutch) language deficiencies and delays in (Dutch) language development’ (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011b). This is in line with a European Parliament resolution of 2009 which says that the national language in particular needs to be addressed at pre-school level.

Languages in primary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2 2 none
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
  widespread localised absent  
2 2 none
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 none
Start of language education
from year 1 from mid-phase end-phase only  
3 1 none
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours  outside school hours   
3 3 none
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
3 3 none
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
1 2 none
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
3 2 none
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 none

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream  absent   
3
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
1
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
3

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
3 2 none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 2 none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2 3 none
Mobility
incorporated into training informal financial support no informal financial support not applicable  
0 1 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
2
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2

Languages offered in primary education

R/M Languages

Frisian in Friesland only

Foreign Languages

English: compulsory - French, German, Spanish: optional

Immigrant Languages

-

Education is compulsory for children aged five to 16. However, over 95 per cent of children start primary schooling at the age of four.

As in pre-primary education, within primary education there are programmes to combat (Dutch) language delays and deficiencies (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011b). 

The government stresses the importance of Dutch language and arithmetic throughout education.. Frameworks have been developed for language and for arithmetic. The frameworks specify levels of proficiency that are linked to different milestones in pupils’ educational careers, such as the end of primary education. The frameworks have been incorporated in a law that came into force in 2010, but the practical implementation of the framework levels in educational content and exams will take place in phases in the coming years (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2011a).

English is compulsory in the two final years of primary education.

Education in immigrant languages used to be provided for by law. Between 1974 and 2004 extra-curricular education in immigrant languages was provided at primary school level and funded by government. Funding was terminated on the grounds that education in immigrant languages ‘was in contradiction with the policy of integration of [immigrant minority] children’ (Extra & Yağmur, 2006: 55). Mastery of Dutch is seen as the basis for integration (Eerste Kamer, 2004). Nevertheless, the law still permits the auxiliary use of languages in addition to Dutch for children from non-Dutch backgrounds if that supports their start in and transition to Dutch education. 

In response to the lack of public provision for immigrant languages at (pre-)primary education level, private initiatives have been taken, and, for example, Chinese, Japanese, Polish, and Russian schools have been established that provide complementary education in the languages and cultures referred to. Those initiatives are found all over the country and are mostly community-based. 

Additionally, a mixed Dutch-Turkish foundation has been set up to develop the provision of (extracurricular) Turkish language education (Stichting TON). These private initiatives put into practice the recommendations made by the Education Council of the Netherlands to the government in 2001, regarding education of immigrant languages (Onderwijsraad, 2001). These EC proposals were not taken up by government.

Languages in secondary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2 2 2
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
widespread localised absent  
2 2 1
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 3
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours outside school hours  
3 3 3
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
3 3 3
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
2 2 2
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified not applicable
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
3 3 3
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 3

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
2
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream absent  
3
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
1
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
2

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3 3 3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 3 3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
2 3 2
Mobility
incorporated into training some financial support none not applicable  
0 2 0
Language level required
linked to CEFR national or region-wide standards none not applicable  
0 2 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
Language level required for non-native speakers
linked to CEFR national or school-based norms not specified  
2

Languages offered in secondary education

R/M Languages

Frisian in Friesland only

Foreign Languages

Compulsory: English plus one other language at highest level of secondary.

Optional: Ancient Greek, Chinese, French, German, Italian, Latin, Russian, Spanish

Immigrant Languages

Arabic, Turkish

The framework for language (cf. primary education domain) is also used in secondary education.

Proficiency in Dutch is compulsory at all levels of secondary education and also part of all exams; so is English. Newcomers to the Netherlands first attend separate education for, on average, two years, which focuses on Dutch language skills and other essential skills. After that they enter mainstream education. Apart from English, a second foreign language is only compulsory at the highest level of secondary education; this is usually German or French and sometimes Spanish. Schools are free to offer additional foreign languages.

Turkish and Arabic can be offered as subjects and taken as an exam subject. However, schools decide if they want to offer these languages and not many do so. Moreover, the proportion of pupils taking exams in either Turkish or Arabic is low and dropped from approximately 0.28 per cent in 2002 to 0.08 per cent in 2003. It has now slightly risen again, to 0.13 per cent in 2011, but is still not at the level of 2002 (cf. for example Alberts & Erens, 2011). A possible explanation for this decrease is the abolition of government funding for education in immigrant languages mentioned above. This low uptake of Turkish and Arabic is all the more noteworthy given the increase in the number of Turkish-Dutch and Moroccan-Dutch children in primary schools in urban areas. The answers given above pertain to those schools that do offer Arabic and/or Turkish.

A recent phenomenon is the increase in secondary schools offering a bilingual programme through Dutch and English (usually referred to as Content and Language Integrated Learning – CLIL). In most cases this concerns the highest level of secondary education, which prepares for university, but more recently it has also been implemented at lower levels (Europees Platform, 2011a). In addition, at pre-primary and primary school level more and more schools increase the time they spend on English language education (early foreign language learning) (Europees Platform, 2011b). These developments have raised the question as to the (language) qualifications teachers at bilingual schools should have.

Languages in Further and Higher Education

Further Education (in three institutions)

 

Institution A Institution B Institution C

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
none 2 none none 3 none none 3 none
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
none 2 none none 3 none none 2 none
Level to be achieved
linked to CEFR national none not applicable
0 3 0 0 3 0 0 3 0
State funding available
full partial none
none 2 none none 2 none none 2 none

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
2 3 2
Target groups
all restricted none
3 3 3
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
3 3 2
Job related skills
yes no
3 3 3
General upskilling
yes no
3 3 1
State funding available
full partial none
1 1 1
Internships in companies
built into course optional none
1 1 3
Use of EU instruments
yes no
1 1 1

Languages offered across 3 VET institutions in the Netherlands

R/M Languages

-

Foreign Languages

English, French, German, Spanish

Immigrant Languages

-

Higher Education (in two institutions)

 

Institution A

Institution B

Language(s) of instruction
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
2 2
Languages on website
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
2 2
Target groups for additional support in the national language
all restricted none
3 3
Level to be achieved in foreign language instruction
linked to CEFR national or institution-based none
3 3
Recruitment of non-national students
 international and immigrant only international only native speakers of national language
2 2
Mobility for language students
obligatory optional no offer
2 2
Mobility for non-language students
obligatory optional no offer
2 2

Languages offered across 2 higher education institutions in the Netherlands

English, French, German, Spanish, Chinese, Dutch as a Second Language, Italian, Japanese

The framework for language (cf. primary education domain) is also used in Vocational Education and Training (VET).

In Higher Education the Anglo-Saxon education system (Bachelor-Master) was introduced from 2002 onwards. It was part of the process to create a European Higher Education Area (Bologna process). As a result of these changes as well as an increased focus on internationalisation in general, to attract international students, Dutch higher education is now increasingly offering many Master courses through English. This has fuelled a discussion about the use of English versus Dutch in university education and about the quality of education in terms of proficiency in English of both university teachers and students.

Languages in Audiovisual Media and Press

 

Amsterdam

Rotterdam

Leeuwarden

Number of languages on radio
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
2 2 2
Number of languages on television
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
4 4 4
Non-national language TV productions
subtitled dubbed
4 4 4
Non-national language films in cinema
subtitled dubbed
4 4 4
R/M language programmes outside of region
always regularly sometimes never
2 2 2
Availability of sign language on TV
always regularly sometimes never
2 2 2

Languages offered in audiovisual media and press across 3 cities in the Netherlands

Radio

Frisian

Television

Frisian, English, Dutch Sign Language, German, Swedish, Turkish, Kurdish

Newspapers

German, English, French, Arabic, Turkish, Italian, Greek, Serbian, Croatian, Russian, Spanish, Bosnian, Chinese, Frisian, Japanese, Polish

The common practice of subtitling television programmes in languages other than Dutch means that from an early age children are exposed to a range of different languages. This is in line with the European Parliament resolution on Multilingualism (2009). However, the large majority of foreign programmes offered on Dutch television is in English, so viewers are mainly exposed to British and American-English language and culture. Children’s programmes, cartoons in particular, are often dubbed. 

In Fryslân, the main regional radio and television broadcaster uses Frisian most of the time and some Dutch. Thus, Frisian audiovisual media in particular are in line with COE and EU recommendations in that they show the language variation in the province.

The range of languages other than Dutch offered on Dutch television is limited.

Languages in public services and spaces

Institutionalised language strategies at city level

> 4 3-4 1-2  national language only

frequency of practice: widely practised occasionally practised not practised

Amsterdam

Rotterdam

Leeuwarden

City council services

2 1 2

Website presence

3 0 1

Annual municipal reports

1 0 1

External or internal translators and interpreters

3 0 1

Competencies in languages other than the national language in job descriptions of staff members

3 0 1

Plan or scheme in place to increase skills in languages

0 0 1

Recruitment of speakers of other languages to support corporate objectives

0 0 1

Offer of training in languages to employees

3 0 6

Regularly updated record of skills in languages of employees

0 0 0

Reward or promotion schemes for being able to adequately communicate in other languages

0 0 0

Oral Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Amsterdam

Rotterdam

Leeuwarden

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

1 1 2

Educational services

2 1 3

Emergency services

2 1 2

Health services

4 4 4

Social services

4 4 2

Legal services

4 4 4

Transport services

2 3 2

Immigration and integration services

2 4 1

Tourism services

4 3 2

Theatre programmes

2 1 2

Written Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Amsterdam

Rotterdam

Leeuwarden

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

1 1 3

Educational services

3 2 2

Emergency services

2 1 1

Health services

4 4 2

Social services

2 4 4

Legal services

2 4 2

Transport services

2 3 3

Immigration and integration services

2 2 1

Tourism services

4 3 4

Theatre programmes

2 2 2

Languages offered in public services and public spaces across 3 cities in the Netherlands (N ≥ 2)

English, Frisian, German, French, (Moroccan) Arabic, Turkish, Chinese, Spanish

The range of languages that are used in public services and spaces (in the cities studied) is limited. Dutch is standard and only occasionally are Turkish and Arabic used, but otherwise the language offered is mostly English. In Fryslân, people are allowed to use Frisian for communication with public services. However, written information from those services is often available in Dutch only.

A service that can be used for all kinds of public affairs is a phone interpreter service (‘tolkentelefoon’). The service is most often used in health care. It used to be paid for by government, but this funding ended on 1 January 2012. It is now considered to be the patient’s own responsibility to be able to speak Dutch or to arrange and pay for their own interpreter (Rijksoverheid, 2011).

Languages in business - 24 companies

General Language Strategies

Widely Practised

Occasionally Practised

Not Practised

Availability of language strategy

2 13 9

Emphasis on language skills in recruitment

14 6 4

International mobility provision

4 8 12

Use of external translators/interpreters

1 6 17

Staff records of language skills

1 5 18

Use of networks for language training

0 5 19

Use of EU programmes/funding

1 5 18

Awareness of EU programmes/funding

0 6 18

Internal Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Partnerships with education sector

1 2 1 4 4 3 19 18 20

Reward/Promotion schemes based on language skills

0 0 0 1 1 0 23 23 24

Language training provision

0 3 2 13 7 4 11 14 18

Use of CEFR

0 0 0 2 2 2 22 22 22

Language used for workplace documents/intranet

22 9 3 2 7 5 0 8 16

Language used for software, web programmes

20 11 3 3 6 0 1 7 21

External Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Language used for annual/business reports

20 11 2 0 3 3 4 10 19

Language used for marketing

23 7 3 1 6 4 0 11 17

Language used for branding/identity

22 10 4 1 7 8 1 7 12

Language used for website

23 13 5 0 0 2 1 11 17

Languages other than English offered in business across 24 companies in the Netherlands (N ≥ 2)

French, German, Spanish, Frisian, Polish, Turkish, Italian, Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, Russian

Export accounts for over 70 per cent of the GDP (CBS, 2011b). This importance is not reflected in the Netherlands’ profile of languages in business, although not all four company types investigated (banks, hotels, supermarkets, and construction companies) are necessarily company types that focus on international business. In particular, local and regional companies will not be internationally oriented. Overall, the role of language in businesses is not explicit. Businesses could be made more aware of the value of multilingualism.

In Frisian companies, the Frisian language is mostly used informally and written Frisian does not play a role at all.

Key Findings overall

At a time of increasing language diversity, the Dutch government emphasises the Dutch language. This is in line with European Commission (EC) /Council of Europe (CoE) policy. On the other hand, EC/CoE policy also stresses the inclusion of minority, foreign and immigrant languages within education and in other sectors of society. Especially with regard to immigrant languages, Dutch policy could be aligned better with European policy.

Nevertheless, there are various initiatives that recognise the value of multilingualism and study or use multilingualism and its benefits. For example, there are several private schools that provide additional education in immigrant languages, and, within secondary education in particular, teaching subjects through English (CLIL) is becoming more widespread.

The ‘mother tongue + 2‘ objective is not fully met, but English being compulsory at secondary school means that most pupils will learn at least one foreign language.

Promising initiatives and pilots

An interesting innovative project as an example of good practice is carried out in the city of Utrecht, the fourth largest city in the Netherlands. Utrecht describes itself as a ’multilingual hotspot‘(City of Utrecht, 2009: 1). A large part of the population is able to speak three or more languages; the link with European policy is explicitly made in the project and the goal of ‘mother tongue + 2’ is promoted. Furthermore, the city hosts many international companies and Utrecht’s university attracts many foreign students. The city wants to take this characteristic as a starting point towards the development of Utrecht as a ‘laboratory for multilingualism’ (ibidem: 1). Various studies around multilingualism have been launched, and multilingual projects set up (ibidem). In 2011 a report was published as part of the project: ‘The Dutch City of Utrecht as a European Hotspot and Laboratory for Multilingualism’ (Martinovic, 2011).

References

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Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (2011a). ‘Bevolking; leeftijd, herkomstgroepering, geslacht en regio, 1 januari.’ Available at: http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37713&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0,3-4,6,9,11-13,15-17,19,22-23,25-26,30-32,34,37,40-41,44-48&D4=0,6&D5=l&HDR=T,G2&STB=G1,G3,G4&VW=T
Accessed 9 December 2011.

Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, 2011b. De Nederlandse economie 2010. Den Haag/Heerlen: Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Available at: http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/03E81D9F-8714-4AEA-B0F7-8EC72111EA56/0/2010p19pub.pdf
Accessed: 28 October 2011.

City of Utrecht, Dept. Public, Internal, Subsidy Affairs (2009). Utrecht: Multilingual hotspot and laboratory in Europe. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/languages/documents/utrecht-multilingual-hotspot-and-laboratory-in-europe_en.pdf
Accessed 13 October 2011. 

Eerste Kamer der Staten-Generaal (2004). Beeïndiging bekostiging onderwijs in allochtone levende talen. Available at: www.eerstekamer.nl/wetsvoorstel/29019_beeindiging_bekostiging
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European Parliament (2009). EP Resolution on Multilingualism: an asset for Europe and a shared commitment. Brussels: European Parliament. 

Europees Platform (2011a). Tto. Tweetalig onderwijs - Content and Language Integrated Learning. Available at: http://www.europeesplatform.nl
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Europees Platform (2011b). Vroeg vreemde talen onderwijs. Available at: http://www.europeesplatform.nl
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Extra, G. and D. Gorter (eds.) (2001). The other languages of Europe: Demographic, sociolinguistic and educational perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 

Extra, G. and K. Yağmur (2006). ‘Immigrant Minority Languages ad Home and at School. A Case Study of the Netherlands.’ European Education 38.2, pp. 50-63.

Martinovic, B. (2011). The Dutch City of Utrecht as a European Hotspot and Laboratory for Multilingualism. Utrecht: Utrecht University. Available at: https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://www.utrecht.nl/images/Secretarie/Internationaal/pdf/Multilingualism%2520Utrecht.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=true
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Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (2011a). Doorlopende leerlijnen taal en rekenen. Available at: http://www.taalenrekenen.nl/
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Rijksoverheid (2011). Tolk- en vertaaldiensten in de zorg. Available at: www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/kwaliteit-van-de-zorg/tolk-en-vertaaldiensten-in-de-zorg
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