Romania

România

Country context

Romania has a population of 21,462,186 (National Statistics Institute, 20101) according to the latest census report of 2002. An estimated 2.8 million people have left the country for work, with Italy and Spain as the main targets (Sandu, 2010). 

There are 20 national minorities officially recognised (or with official political representation) in Romania, representing more than 11% of the population. The largest ones are the Hungarians (6.6% of the population) and the Roma (2.5% of the population), according to the 2002 census. The Hungarians are mainly located in the central and western part of the country and have important political and mass media representation. The Hungarian language is widely used in education, local administration and the justice system where Hungarians represent over 20% of the local population. The Roma minority is still underrepresented in power positions. Romani language is also underrepresented in mass media and education. Approximately 11% of the pre-university educational institutions in Romania have a minority language as a medium of instruction in at least one section, 90% of these being in the Hungarian language)2.

Immigration is a growing phenomenon with an estimation of 57,211 third-country nationals where the three main groups are from the Republic of Moldova (28%), Turkey (17%) and China (14%)3 (European Commission.; Statistical Office of the European Communities, 2010, p. 194). This does not include European Union citizens. The Eurostat estimation for 2008-2060 for Romania is an immigration rate of 18.4 to 1,000 inhabitants (Alexe & Păunescu, 2010, p. 22).

The statistical data about the size and the structure of the population will be updated in 2012 when the final results of the 2011 census will be made public.

1 https://statistici.insse.ro

2 2002 Census: http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/RPL2002INS/vol4/tabele/t1.pdf

3 http://ori.mai.gov.ro/api/media/userfiles/Proiecte- -Strategii/ Instructiuni IF 1101 10012012

 

Languages in official documents and databases

The national language, foreign languages, and a range of R/M languages are dealt with in language legislation and/or language policy documents. The learning and teaching of the national language abroad for children and/or adults originating from Romania is (co-)funded in 18 countries in Europe and abroad. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been ratified by Romania. The following 20 R/M languages are recognised in the Charter: Albanian, Armenian, Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romani, Russian, Rusyn, Serbian, Slovak, Tatar, Turkish, Ukrainian and Yiddish. There is official provision in nation- or region-wide education, supported by the Charter for 15 of these languages i.e., not for Albanian, Armenian, Macedonian, Rusyn, and Yiddish.

Official nation-wide data collection mechanisms on language diversity in Romanian exist in terms of periodically updated census data. In these data collection mechanisms, national, R/M and immigrant language varieties are addressed, based on a mother tongue question.

In 1995 Romania signed the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, and in 2007 the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages was ratified. While Romanian is the official language, there are ten minority languages that have general protection: Albanian, Armenian, Greek, Italian, Macedonian, Polish, Romani, Ruthenian, Tatar and Yiddish and ten languages with enhanced protection: Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian.

Although topics related to these languages appear sometimes in mass media, data regarding the topic are still scarce. At a national level, information can only be found in the National Census with a question regarding the mother tongue. In addition, Romania was included in Eurobarometer 63.4 from 2005 (Europeans and languages) where respondents were asked about their mother language, other languages known and their language competence level. Data about the use of minority languages in education are also available at the National Statistics Institute and at the Ministry of Education1.

1 https://statistici.insse.ro

Languages in pre-primary education

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support 
FL:  all  restricted  no support 
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
NL:  all  immigrant children only  no support 
2 none none 3
Duration
≥2 years 1 year <1 year  
3 none none 3
Minimum group size requirements
 none  5-10  >10
3 none none 3
Days per week
 >1 day  0.5-1 day  <0.5 day
3 none none 2
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
3 none none 3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none
3 none none 3
State funding available
full partial none
3 none none 3

Languages offered in pre-primary education

R/M Languages

Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian

Foreign Languages

-

Immigrant Languages

-

Foreign languages at the pre-primary level are optional. However, most of nurseries include a foreign language in their curriculum. The fact that a year of nursery is mandatory ensures that most of the children are acquainted with a foreign language before beginning primary education. 

Also noteworthy is that, legally, all the children of the recognised minority have the right to education in their own language. While this is an important positive aspect, there are still differences in the implementation of this law within different minority groups. 

The migration history of the country, with the emigration rate higher than that of immigration, is one of the main causes for the absence of an important educational offer for immigrants. The most important immigrant group comes from the Republic of Moldova but language education is not an issue as they have the same language and a very similar culture to Romanians.

Languages in primary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3 3 none
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
  widespread localised absent  
3 1 none
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 none
Start of language education
from year 1 from mid-phase end-phase only  
3 2 none
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours  outside school hours   
3 3 none
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
3 3 none
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
3 2 none
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified
3 3 none
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 none

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream  absent   
3
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
2
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised  school based  absent   
3

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
3 3 none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 3 none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 3 none
Mobility
incorporated into training informal financial support no informal financial support not applicable  
0 1 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers  unqualified   
3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3

Languages offered in primary education

R/M Languages

Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish , Romani, Russian-Lipovan, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish, Ukrainian

Foreign Languages

English, French, German, Italian, Russian, Spanish: one of these languages is compulsory

Immigrant Languages

-

A similar situation can be found in primary education. Here one foreign language is mandatory, with the school deciding what this should be, although some schools also give children and their parents the opportunity to choose which language to learn. Furthermore, some schools provide instruction fully or partially in minority languages, mostly in Hungarian. Here all classes can be taught in the minority language with the exception of Romanian language and literature classes. Still, there are no provisions on the use of immigrant languages in primary schools.

The new education law gives more autonomy to the schools and increases the competitiveness between them. It can be expected that this process will enhance the quality of the foreign languages taught as it is an important factor in the choice of school. The recent provisions based on the new law will also encourage schools to offer Romani language and Roma culture classes at the parents’ request.

Languages in secondary education

Organisation

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3 3 none
Languages used as a medium of instruction (CLIL)
widespread localised absent  
3 2 none
Target groups
R/ML:  all  native speakers only  no support
FL:  all  restricted  no support
IL:  all  native speakers only  no support
3 3 none
Scheduling
in school hours partly in school hours outside school hours  
3 3 none
Minimum group size requirements
none 5-10 >10  
1 1 none
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
3 2 none
Level to be achieved
Other NL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
FL: linked to CEFR national or school norms not specified not applicable
IL: national or regional norms school norms not specified not applicable
3 3 none
State funding available
full partial none  
3 3 none

 

NL

National Languages
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines  
3
Extra support for newcomers
before mainstream during mainstream absent  
3
Diagnostic testing on entry
all immigrants only absent  
1
Monitoring of language skills
national standardised school based absent  
3

Teaching

 

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3 3 none
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 3 none
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3 3 none
Mobility
incorporated into training some financial support none not applicable  
0 1 0
Language level required
linked to CEFR national or region-wide standards none not applicable  
0 3 0

 

NL

National Languages
Teacher qualifications
language teachers general teachers unqualified  
3
Pre-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
In-service teacher training
subject-specific general none  
3
Language level required for non-native speakers
linked to CEFR national or school-based norms not specified  
2

Languages offered in secondary education

R/M Languages

Bulgarian, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romani, Russian-Lipovan, Slovak, Serbian, Turkish, Ukrainian

Foreign Languages

English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish: two of these languages are compulsory depending on school's offer

Immigrant Languages

-

Secondary education has similar characteristics to primary. In most cases, pupils continue the study of the foreign language started in primary school. They also start a second foreign language in the first year of secondary level. At the national level, there are schools with intensive study programmes in foreign languages and also specialised high schools where the medium of instruction is in a specific foreign language, such as: English, German, French, Italian and Spanish.

Education in minority languages at secondary school level exists in specific regions of the country. The main minority language with the necessary institutions and staffing is Hungarian, followed by German, Ukrainian, Serbian and Slovak. Pupils have the opportunity to take their final national exams in the minority language with an adapted Romanian language test.

Languages in Further and Higher Education

Further Education (in three institutions)

 

Institution A Institution B Institution C

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages

R/ML

Regional/Minority Languages

FL

Foreign Languages

IL

Immigrant Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
none 3 none none 3 none 3 3 none
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
none 3 none none 3 none 3 3 none
Level to be achieved
linked to CEFR national none not applicable
0 3 0 0 3 0 0 3 0
State funding available
full partial none
none 3 none none 3 none 3 3 none

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages

Additional NL
support

National Languages
Range of language support programmes
 wide variety  limited  no specifications
3 3 2
Target groups
all restricted none
3 3 3
Curriculum
coherent and explicit general no guidelines
3 3 3
Job related skills
yes no
3 3 3
General upskilling
yes no
3 3 3
State funding available
full partial none
3 3 3
Internships in companies
built into course optional none
3 3 3
Use of EU instruments
yes no
1 1 1

Languages offered across 3 VET institutions in Romania

R/M Languages

Hungarian, Romani

Foreign Languages

English, French, German

Immigrant Languages

-

Higher Education (in three institutions)

 

Institution A

Institution B

Institution C

Language(s) of instruction
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
3 2 3
Languages on website
 national, foreign and R/M national and foreign national only
2 2 3
Target groups for additional support in the national language
all restricted none
2 2 2
Level to be achieved in foreign language instruction
linked to CEFR national or institution-based none
3 2 3
Recruitment of non-national students
 international and immigrant only international only native speakers of national language
2 2 2
Mobility for language students
obligatory optional no offer
2 2 2
Mobility for non-language students
obligatory optional no offer
1 1 1

Languages offered across 3 higher education institutions in Romania

English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Hungarian, Russian, Arabic, Japanese, Norwegian

At the vocational training level the language profile taken as a whole is somewhat moderate with a strong national and foreign languages representation and just a few Hungarian and Romani courses offered in Cluj. However, Hungarian and German, as the main minority languages, are well represented at the tertiary level in regions where the minority population is significant. The national and foreign languages are strongly represented. Here English and French come first with specialised sections in foreign languages or even postgraduate levels such as Master or PhD programmes taught partially or entirely in these languages.

Recent developments have seen more and more investment in courses taught in foreign languages, mainly English and French, with some universities also maintaining sections for Hungarian and German. Romani, as well as other national minority languages, are also studied in several language/ pedagogical higher education units as they prepare future teachers to teach (in) these languages. Here, again, there is no provision for immigrant languages.

Languages in Audiovisual Media and Press

 

Bucharest

Iasi

Cluj

Number of languages on radio
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
1 1 2
Number of languages on television
>4 3-4 1-2 national language only
2 1 2
Non-national language TV productions
subtitled dubbed
4 4 4
Non-national language films in cinema
subtitled dubbed
4 4 4
R/M language programmes outside of region
always regularly sometimes never
3 1 4
Availability of sign language on TV
always regularly sometimes never
2 1 1

Languages offered in audiovisual media and press across 3 cities in Romania

Radio

Hungarian

Television

Hungarian. German, Romani

Newspapers

English, Hungarian, French

Traditionally mass media in Romania are in national and minority languages. Most of the films and foreign television programmes are subtitled while the rest of the broadcasts are in the national language. There is some space for Hungarian and German programmes on the public national TV channels and some specialised local TV programmes that are entirely in these minority languages. TV channels in Hungarian, German, Serbian and other minority languages are widely available through cable operators. Relatively recently, cartoons have begun to be dubbed while the language of some programmes can be changed by the viewer’s choice. 

Newspapers are mainly in Romanian. There are some international English, French or German newspapers available in some bookstores and shops. In the central and western part of the country there are also Hungarian and German newspapers and magazines. Online media is also available in national and minority languages, as well as in some immigrant languages such as Arabic and Chinese.

Languages in public services and spaces

Institutionalised language strategies at city level

> 4 3-4 1-2  national language only

frequency of practice: widely practised occasionally practised not practised

Bucharest

Iasi

Cluj

City council services

1 0 6

Website presence

1 1 5

Annual municipal reports

1 0 2

External or internal translators and interpreters

1 1 6

Competencies in languages other than the national language in job descriptions of staff members

0 1 3

Plan or scheme in place to increase skills in languages

1 0 0

Recruitment of speakers of other languages to support corporate objectives

3 3 3

Offer of training in languages to employees

1 0 2

Regularly updated record of skills in languages of employees

0 0 0

Reward or promotion schemes for being able to adequately communicate in other languages

0 0 0

Oral Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Bucharest

Iasi

Cluj

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

2 1 2

Educational services

1 1 2

Emergency services

4 1 2

Health services

1 1 2

Social services

3 1 2

Legal services

4 4 2

Transport services

2 2 2

Immigration and integration services

4 2 3

Tourism services

3 3 3

Theatre programmes

3 1 2

Written Communications Facilities

>4 3-4 1-2 national language only

Bucharest

Iasi

Cluj

Political debates and decision-making processes at the city council level

2 2 3

Educational services

1 1 3

Emergency services

2 2 2

Health services

1 1 1

Social services

1 1 1

Legal services

1 2 2

Transport services

2 2 2

Immigration and integration services

4 2 2

Tourism services

2 3 4

Theatre programmes

2 1 2

Languages offered in public services and spaces across 3 cities in Romania (N ≥ 2)

English, Hungarian, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Bulgarian, Chinese, Polish, Russian, Turkish, Arabic, Armenian, Croatian, Czech, Greek, Hindi, Portuguese, Romani, Serbian, Slovak, Tatar, Ukrainian

Some public institutions supply information in several languages, for example websites are available in English or French as well as the national language. Hungarian is also available in the central and western part of the country, be it through online material or for some of the services that are available to the public. Minority language use is associated with the population structure. In areas where a certain minority population represents at least 20% of the local population, public administration and public services institutions will ensure there is communication in the minority language as stipulated in the Constitution, and in accordance with international treaties that Romania has adhered to.

Investment in language skills inside public institutions is not consistent. However, some institutions seem to have adapted to the local situation. In areas with large minority groups the services are provided by personnel who can usually speak the correspondent minority language. In the case of the Roma minority, mediators are hired to help in the communication between the ethnic groups.

Languages in business - 24 companies

General Language Strategies

Widely Practised

Occasionally Practised

Not Practised

Availability of language strategy

3 12 9

Emphasis on language skills in recruitment

17 5 2

International mobility provision

4 8 12

Use of external translators/interpreters

3 13 8

Staff records of language skills

0 10 14

Use of networks for language training

0 4 20

Use of EU programmes/funding

0 2 22

Awareness of EU programmes/funding

0 9 15

Internal Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Partnerships with education sector

1 2 0 0 4 3 23 18 21

Reward/Promotion schemes based on language skills

0 3 0 1 5 1 23 16 23

Language training provision

1 3 0 2 10 3 21 11 21

Use of CEFR

0 0 0 1 1 1 23 23 23

Language used for workplace documents/intranet

22 9 3 1 10 1 1 4 20

Language used for software, web programmes

17 15 3 4 6 3 3 4 16

External Language Strategies

Widely Practised Occasionally Practised Not Practised

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

NL

National Language

BE

Business English

FL R/ML - IL

Language used for annual/business reports

19 8 1 2 3 2 3 13 21

Language used for marketing

19 9 1 2 6 1 3 9 22

Language used for branding/identity

20 14 3 1 8 2 3 5 16

Language used for website

23 18 6 1 2 4 0 4 14

Languages other than English offered in business across 24 companies in Romania (N ≥ 2)

French, German, Italian, Hungarian, Turkish

The businesses surveyed show a medium to low language profile. While some have a language strategy and practice, the investment in language skills for their employees is very low. Most of the time it looks like the skills were acquired prior to employment. The national language and English seem to emerge as the main languages used, followed by French and German.

Policies highlighting the importance of languages and the necessity of private investment in these skills are recommended to increase the multilingual practices in businesses.

Key Findings overall

Romania presents a situation where national, minority and foreign languages seem to be well promoted especially in the education system. The businesses researched here appear to use foreign languages adequately, but do not invest significantly in language skills for employees.

Minority languages are supported legally both through the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and through the new education law. But this reality does not lead necessarily to equal results for all minorities. While some minority languages, for example Hungarian, are represented in educational and cultural activities, others such as Romani are not. While investments have been made to help the access of Roma to administration, schools and other public services through mediators, there is still much more to be done in order to ensure real opportunities for using Romani language in education and in the public space. While these necessities are known and legal statements have been made regarding Roma language and culture (Ministry of Education Notification 29323/20.04.2004), more practical measures are still required.

Another aspect that needs urgent attention is the immigrant population, and language issues that are related to them, for example access to education. Long term immigration is most likely to increase and policies to meet their needs should be discussed and implemented.

Another point of improvement could be the offer of the universities regarding the Romanian language as a foreign language. This would be useful for foreign students that want to study in Romania. 

The development of language skills among workers in public institutions and the improvement of communication strategies, especially disseminating information in more languages, would be of great social and economic importance for both immigrant population and foreign entrepreneurs.

Promising initiatives and pilots

The linguistic landscape of present day Romania is diverse and there is a growing tendency to recognise and promote multilingualism as a societal resource and value. Some of the propitious initiatives in this field are briefly described below.

At the governmental level, one example is the Department for Inter-ethnic Relations study on Multilingualism and minority languages in Romania1, developed together with the Romanian Academy. The programmes of the Romanian Immigration Office or Romanian Institute for Research on National Minorities, from Cluj Napoca are also worth mentioning (e.g. the project on Bilingual Form). The Romanian Ministry of Education recent policy options and projects are relevant as well. For example, the new education law, issued in January 2011 and the new draft of the curriculum framework highlight the importance of developing the students’ communicative competence in several languages.

The recent initiative of the National Association for Community Programmes, the Representation of the European Commission to Romania and the Department for Inter-ethnic Relations to organise the event MALLtilingualism – Voices and Colour at a shopping mall in Bucharest is an example of innovative ways of reaching wider audiences in a non-formal environment. The celebration of the European Day of Languages 2011 by the Romanian Cultural Institute and EUNIC Romania within the format of a cultural activities ‘swap-shop’ is part of the same effort to convey the cultural diversity message to the public. 

Another example of collaboration between governmental bodies and civil society is the project Learn Romanian carried out by West University of Timisoara, the Intercultural Institute of Timisoara and the Romanian Ministry of Education. Together with the project Migrant in Romania2, also funded by the European Fund for Integration and implemented in partnership by the Intercultural Institute of Timisoara and the Association of Refugee Women in Romania, the aforementioned initiative is aiming to support the learning of basic Romanian.

The increased awareness of the importance of multilingualism is evident by the numerous research projects and scientific debates at university level, that have been recently organized by both language and non-language faculties. These initiatives are in line with a suggestion from Leonard Orban, European Commissioner for Multilingualism between 2007 and 2010, to set up multilingualism chairs within universities3. One example is the conference organised by the Faculty of Sociology and Social Work at Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj called From Immigration to Integration through Multilingualism4.

1 www.insse.ro, www.edu.ro, www.dri.gov.ro

2 www.migrant.ro

3 http://www.ziare.com/tv/ - interview, 23 November 2009

4 http://www.lumebuna.ro/2011/05/29/conferinta-%E2%80%9Cde-la-imigrare-la-integrare-prin-multilingvism%E2%80%9D/

References

Alexe, I. and Păunescu, B. (ed.) (2011). Studiua asupra fenomenului imigrație în România.

Integrarea străinilor în societatea românească. București: Fundația Soros

European Commission; Statistical Office of the European Communities. (2010). Europe in figures - Eurostat yearbook 2010. Luxembourg: European Commission.

Sandu, D. (2010). Lumile sociale ale migrației. Iași: Polirom.

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